Exposure to green and blue spaces during travel does not have immediate effect on subjective happiness and stress: evidence from a GPS survey in England

How wellbeing can be improved in cities, has attracted increasing attention. This paper studies urban stress and happiness in relation to daily travel behaviour through a large app-based geographic ecological momentary assessment study conducted in three English cities: Birmingham, Leeds, and Brighton and Hove. The key questions are whether, and to what extent, environmental factors—specifically, green and blue spaces, and weather conditions—affect urban travellers’ happiness and stress levels immediately following travel. GPS data from 606 participants were collected and combined with survey questions asking participants to score their current happiness and stress levels at the end of trips. Environmental data were linked to the GPS location data. The results indicate that exposure to green and blue spaces during trips had no immediate effect on happiness or stress levels. However, active transportation modes, such as walking and biking, were associated with higher happiness and lower stress compared to car use. These findings suggest that while exposure to green and blue spaces may provide long-term environmental values within an urban context; promoting active travel modes could yield more immediate benefits for urban wellbeing.